SS 1 Government Lesson Notes for Second Term

Government is the system by which a country, state, or community is organized and controlled. It provides the framework for making and enforcing laws, maintaining order, and ensuring the welfare of the people. Various forms of government exist, each with unique features, strengths, and challenges. This lesson focuses on key types of government systems such as unitary, federal, presidential, parliamentary, confederal, monarchy, and republicanism, as well as vital governmental principles like constitutions, the judiciary, and the legislature. These concepts will help students understand how power is organized and exercised in different societies, enabling them to grasp the role and importance of government in ensuring peace, justice, and development.

Topic: Types and Characteristics of Government

Subtopic: Unitary Government

Meaning of Unitary Government

A unitary government is a system of governance in which all powers are concentrated in a single, central authority. Unlike a federal government where power is shared between the central government and various regional units, a unitary government centralizes decision-making and administration. Any administrative divisions that exist, such as regional or local governments, operate under the authority of the central government and can be altered or abolished by it.

In this system, the central government acts as the supreme decision-making body, with full control over the legislative, executive, and judicial functions. Local or regional authorities exist only to implement decisions made by the central authority.

Examples of Countries with Unitary Government

United Kingdom: The UK is considered a unitary state despite having devolved powers to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. These powers can be adjusted or removed by the central government.

France: A classic example of a highly centralized unitary state where the central government maintains significant control over regional and local administrations.

Main Features of Unitary Government

Centralized Power: All governmental powers and authority are concentrated in a single central body. The central government holds supreme authority over all parts of the state.

Single Constitution: There is usually one constitution governing the entire nation. This document outlines the central government’s powers and responsibilities.

Uniform Laws and Policies: Laws, policies, and regulations are consistent and uniformly applied across the entire country.

Subordination of Regional Authorities: Local or regional governments, if they exist, are subordinate to the central authority and can be reorganized or abolished at any time.

Flexible Structure: The central government can amend or adapt the structure of governance without consulting subnational units.

Advantages of Unitary Government

Efficient Decision-Making: Since power is concentrated, decisions can be made and implemented quickly without delays caused by intergovernmental consultations.

Uniform Policies: Policies and laws are standardized across the country, reducing confusion and ensuring equality among citizens.

Cost-Effective: The system avoids the duplication of administrative structures, leading to lower costs in governance.

National Unity: A single central authority fosters a sense of national identity and unity, reducing the risk of regional divisions.

Strong Leadership: The central government’s supremacy allows for cohesive and decisive leadership.

Disadvantages of Unitary Government

Over-Centralization: The concentration of power can lead to authoritarianism or abuse of power by the central government.

Neglect of Local Needs: The central government may not adequately address the unique needs and preferences of local communities.

Delayed Local Responses: Issues requiring urgent attention in specific regions may face delays due to bureaucracy.

Overburdened Central Authority: The central government may struggle to handle all administrative responsibilities effectively, leading to inefficiencies.

Lack of Local Representation: Citizens in regions may feel disconnected from the decision-making process, leading to dissatisfaction.

Factors Responsible for the Success of Unitary Government

Small Geographical Area: Countries with smaller territories are easier to manage under a unitary system.

Homogeneous Population: A population with similar cultural, religious, or linguistic characteristics promotes unity and reduces conflict.

Effective Communication Systems: Modern technology and efficient communication networks allow the central government to maintain control and deliver services efficiently.

Strong and Stable Leadership: Capable leadership ensures the smooth functioning of the centralized system and the trust of the citizens.

Economic Uniformity: When regions have similar economic structures and needs, a unitary system becomes more practical.

Resource Control in a Unitary Government

In a unitary government, the central authority has full control over the nation’s resources. It decides how resources are allocated, managed, and utilized across the country. Local governments, if they exist, depend entirely on the central government for funding and cannot independently manage natural or financial resources.

Examples of Resource Control: In France, resource allocation and management are controlled centrally, ensuring uniformity in development.

In the United Kingdom, although Scotland has devolved powers, the central government retains ultimate authority over critical resources like oil and gas.

Reading Assignment

1. Read pages 45-55 of Essential Government for Senior Secondary Schools by Oyeleye.
2. Research the governance systems of the United Kingdom and France as examples of unitary systems.
3. Study the roles of local governments in unitary states and compare them to those in federal systems.

Evaluation Questions

1. Define a unitary government and explain its main features.
2. List three advantages and three disadvantages of a unitary government.
3. Why is a homogeneous population considered an essential factor for the success of a unitary government?
4. Compare resource control in a unitary system to that in a federal system.
5. Give two examples of countries practicing unitary government and explain how their governance systems operate.

Topic: Federal Government

Definition of Federation

A federation, or federal government, is a system of governance in which power is constitutionally divided between a central authority and various regional or state governments. In this system, the central government oversees issues of national importance, while the regional governments handle local matters. Both levels of government operate independently within their areas of jurisdiction, as outlined by the constitution.

Examples of Federations:

• United States of America: Power is shared between the federal government in Washington, D.C., and state governments.
• Nigeria: Power is divided between the federal government and the 36 states.

Reasons for Federating

1. Unity in Diversity: Federations are often formed to bring together diverse groups, ensuring unity while allowing autonomy in local matters.
   • Example: Nigeria’s federal system accommodates its diverse ethnic groups.
2. Economic Cooperation: Regions or states come together to share resources and promote economic growth.
   • Example: The European Union’s economic collaboration inspires federations to pool resources.
3. Security Concerns: Smaller states or regions may federate to form a stronger collective defense against external threats.
   • Example: The United States’ federation was partly motivated by the need for unified defense.
4. Administrative Efficiency: Federations allow for better governance by dividing responsibilities between central and regional governments.
   • Example: India’s federal system enables the central government to focus on national issues while states handle local matters.

Characteristics of a Federal System

1. Written Constitution: A federal system is governed by a written constitution that clearly defines the powers and responsibilities of both the central and regional governments.
2. Division of Powers: Powers are divided into three lists:
   • Exclusive List: Powers only the central government can exercise (e.g., defense, foreign affairs).
   • Concurrent List: Powers shared by both central and state governments (e.g., education, health).
   • Residual List: Powers reserved for the states.
3. Supremacy of the Constitution: The constitution is the highest authority and binds both the central and regional governments.
4. Independent Judiciary: The judiciary ensures that both levels of government operate within their constitutional limits and resolves disputes between them.
5. Bicameral Legislature: Federal systems often have a two-chamber legislature, one representing the population and the other representing the regions or states.

Resource Control in a Federal System

Resource control refers to the authority to manage and utilize natural and financial resources within a federation. In federal systems, resource control can be contentious, particularly in resource-rich regions.

Key Aspects of Resource Control:

1. Centralized Resource Control: The central government manages major resources and allocates revenues to states.
   • Example: In Nigeria, the federal government controls oil revenues and shares them among states.
2. Regional Resource Control: States or regions manage their resources and contribute a portion to the central government.
   • Example: The United States allows states significant control over resources within their boundaries.

Challenges of Resource Control:

• Inequitable distribution of resources can lead to tension between regions.
• Resource-dependent states may demand greater autonomy.

Merits of Federal Government

1. Promotes Unity: Federalism unites diverse groups while allowing them to maintain their identities.
   • Example: India’s federal system accommodates its many languages and cultures.
2. Encourages Local Autonomy: States or regions can address their unique needs without interference from the central government.
   • Example: In the USA, states regulate education and healthcare independently.
3. Checks Abuse of Power: Power-sharing prevents the central government from becoming too powerful.
4. Facilitates Development: States can implement policies tailored to their needs, fostering innovation and growth.
5. Efficient Administration: Responsibilities are divided, ensuring better management of national and local affairs.

Demerits of Federal Government

1. Resource Allocation Conflicts: Disputes may arise over the distribution of resources between the central and regional governments.
2. High Cost of Governance: Maintaining multiple levels of government can be expensive.
3. Slower Decision-Making: Coordination between central and state governments can delay decisions on national issues.
4. Regionalism: States may prioritize their interests over national unity, leading to divisions.
5. Duplication of Functions: Overlapping responsibilities can result in inefficiencies.

Reading Assignment

1. Read pages 56-70 of Essential Government for Senior Secondary Schools by Oyeleye.
2. Research the governance structures of federal countries like the United States, Nigeria, and India.
3. Compare the federal and unitary systems of government in terms of resource control and efficiency.

Evaluation Questions

1. Define a federal government and explain its main characteristics.
2. Discuss three reasons why countries adopt a federal system of government.
3. Differentiate between exclusive, concurrent, and residual powers in a federal system.
4. List and explain three merits and three demerits of federal government.
5. How does resource control work in a federal system? Provide examples from specific countries.

Topic: Presidential System of Government

Definition of Presidential System of Government

A presidential system of government is a democratic form of governance in which the executive branch operates independently of the legislative branch. In this system, the president serves as both the head of state and the head of government, wielding executive powers separate from the legislature. The president is usually elected directly by the people or through an electoral college for a fixed term and cannot be easily removed from office except through constitutional processes like impeachment.

Examples of Countries with Presidential Systems:

• United States of America: The president is elected every four years and holds executive powers independently of Congress.
• Nigeria: The president is both the head of state and government, elected every four years by the citizens.

Characteristics of a Presidential System of Government

1. Separation of Powers: The powers of the government are divided among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, ensuring checks and balances.
2. Fixed Tenure: The president is elected for a specific term, often four or five years, depending on the country’s constitution.
3. Single Executive: The president serves as both the head of state and head of government, unifying executive powers.
4. Independent Judiciary: The judiciary operates independently to interpret laws and resolve disputes, ensuring justice.
5. Direct Election of the President: The president is typically elected directly by the people or through an electoral college.
6. Cabinet Appointments: The president appoints members of the cabinet who oversee various ministries or departments. These appointments often require legislative approval.
7. Legislative Independence: The legislature operates independently and cannot be dissolved by the president.

Resource Control in a Presidential System of Government

Resource control in a presidential system is usually centralized, with the president overseeing the allocation, management, and distribution of the nation’s resources. However, the legislative branch plays a critical role in approving budgets and monitoring expenditures to ensure transparency and accountability.

Key Aspects of Resource Control:

1. Budgetary Approval: The president proposes a national budget, which must be approved by the legislature.
2. Resource Allocation: The president ensures that resources are allocated equitably to various regions and sectors of the economy.
3. Economic Policies: The executive branch formulates policies to manage natural resources, industries, and foreign investments.

Examples:

• In the United States, the president, with approval from Congress, manages federal resources and allocates funds to various states.
• In Nigeria, the president oversees oil revenues and works with the National Assembly for equitable distribution.

Advantages of a Presidential System of Government

1. Stability in Leadership: Fixed terms ensure that the president’s leadership remains stable, providing continuity in governance.
2. Clear Separation of Powers: The distinct roles of the executive, legislature, and judiciary prevent abuse of power.
3. Direct Accountability: The president is directly accountable to the people, fostering transparency and responsiveness.
4. Efficient Decision-Making: The president’s centralized authority enables swift and decisive actions during emergencies.
5. Promotion of National Unity: A single executive leader represents the entire nation, promoting a sense of unity.

Disadvantages of a Presidential System of Government

1. Risk of Authoritarianism: Concentrated executive powers can lead to misuse and abuse of authority.
2. Expensive Elections: Presidential elections often require significant resources, making them costly for candidates and the nation.
3. Gridlock: Disagreements between the executive and legislature can delay decision-making and governance.
4. Fixed Terms: A president’s fixed tenure means ineffective leaders cannot be easily removed until the end of their term.
5. Overburdened Executive: The president’s dual role as head of state and government may lead to administrative inefficiencies.

Reading Assignment

1. Read pages 71-85 of Essential Government for Senior Secondary Schools by Oyeleye.
2. Research the differences between presidential and parliamentary systems of government.
3. Compare the resource control mechanisms in the United States and Nigeria.

Evaluation Questions

1. Define a presidential system of government and explain its key characteristics.
2. Discuss three advantages and three disadvantages of the presidential system.
3. How is resource control managed in a presidential system? Provide examples.
4. Explain the significance of the separation of powers in a presidential system.
5. Identify two countries practicing the presidential system of government and describe how their systems operate.

Topic: Parliamentary or Cabinet System of Government

Meaning of Parliamentary System of Government

A parliamentary system of government, also known as a cabinet system, is a form of democratic governance in which the executive branch derives its legitimacy from the legislature (parliament) and is accountable to it. In this system, the head of state is separate from the head of government. The head of government is typically the prime minister, who is chosen from the majority party or coalition in parliament.

Examples of Countries with Parliamentary Systems:

• United Kingdom: The prime minister is the head of government, while the monarch is the ceremonial head of state.
• India: The president serves as the head of state, and the prime minister leads the government.

Major Characteristics of Parliamentary System of Government

1. Fusion of Powers: There is a close relationship between the executive and legislative branches, as the executive is drawn from the legislature.
2. Collective Responsibility: Members of the cabinet are collectively responsible to the parliament for government policies and actions.
3. Prime Minister as Head of Government: The prime minister is the leader of the majority party or coalition and oversees the administration of the country.
4. Ceremonial Head of State: The head of state (e.g., a monarch or president) performs symbolic and ceremonial roles but has limited powers.
5. Vote of No Confidence: Parliament can remove the government from power through a vote of no confidence if it loses the majority’s support.
6. Frequent Elections: The government’s tenure depends on maintaining the confidence of parliament, leading to potential early elections.
7. Flexible Constitution: Parliamentary systems often have flexible constitutions that allow for easy adaptation to political changes.

Merits of Parliamentary System of Government

1. Accountability: The government is directly accountable to parliament, ensuring greater transparency and responsiveness.
2. Efficient Law-Making: The fusion of powers allows for smooth and efficient legislative processes, as the executive and legislature work closely together.
3. Prevention of Tyranny: The system’s checks and balances prevent any single individual or group from dominating government.
4. Adaptability: Parliamentary systems can quickly respond to changes in public opinion or political crises.
5. Representation of Diverse Interests: Coalition governments, common in parliamentary systems, encourage the inclusion of diverse political views.

Demerits of Parliamentary System of Government

1. Instability: Governments can be dissolved if they lose parliamentary support, leading to frequent elections and potential instability.
2. Dominance of the Executive: The fusion of powers may result in the executive dominating parliament.
3. Lack of Direct Election of the Leader: Citizens do not directly elect the prime minister, which may reduce public influence on leadership choices.
4. Risk of Weak Coalitions: Coalition governments may struggle to make decisions due to conflicting interests among parties.
5. Potential for Partisanship: Close ties between the executive and legislature can lead to biased decision-making favoring the majority party.

Differences Between Presidential and Parliamentary Systems

Feature	Presidential System	Parliamentary System
Executive-Legislative Relationship	Separation of powers	Fusion of powers
Head of Government	President	Prime Minister
Head of State	Often the same as the president	Separate from the prime minister
Election of Leader	Directly elected by the people	Chosen by the majority in parliament
Tenure	Fixed term	Flexible; depends on parliamentary support
Accountability	Limited to impeachment processes	Directly accountable to parliament
Examples	United States, Nigeria	United Kingdom, India

Reading Assignment

1. Read pages 86-100 of Essential Government for Senior Secondary Schools by Oyeleye.
2. Research the structure of governance in the United Kingdom and compare it with Nigeria’s presidential system.
3. Review historical examples of no-confidence votes in parliamentary systems and their outcomes.

Evaluation Questions

1. Define a parliamentary system of government and explain its key characteristics.
2. Discuss three merits and three demerits of a parliamentary system.
3. How does a parliamentary system ensure accountability in governance?
4. Differentiate between the roles of the head of state and head of government in a parliamentary system.
5. Compare the presidential and parliamentary systems, highlighting three major differences.

Topic: Confederal Government

Meaning of Confederation

A confederal government, or confederation, is a loose union of independent states that come together to form a central government with limited powers. In this system, the central authority is subordinate to the individual member states, which retain most of their sovereignty and independence. Member states voluntarily agree to delegate certain powers to the central government, often in areas such as defense, foreign affairs, and trade.

Examples of Confederations:

• Switzerland (before 1848): Operated as a confederation with a weak central authority.
• Confederate States of America (1861-1865): Formed during the American Civil War, where individual states maintained significant autonomy.

Main Features of Confederation

1. Sovereignty of Member States: Each state retains its independence and sovereignty, with minimal interference from the central authority.
2. Weak Central Authority: The central government has limited powers and primarily serves as a coordinating body for member states.
3. Voluntary Membership: Member states voluntarily join and can choose to withdraw from the confederation.
4. Decentralized Power: Most powers, including law enforcement and resource control, are vested in the individual states.
5. Unanimous Decision-Making: Major decisions often require unanimous agreement among member states.
6. Flexible Constitution: The constitutional arrangement in a confederation is usually flexible and can be easily amended by the member states.

Resource Control in a Confederal Government

In a confederal government, resource control is primarily managed by the individual member states. The central government does not have the authority to levy taxes or control resources independently. Instead, it relies on contributions from the member states to fund its operations.

Key Aspects of Resource Control:

1. State Autonomy: Each state controls its natural resources and determines how they are utilized.
2. Voluntary Contributions: Member states provide funds to the central government voluntarily, based on agreements.
3. Limited Central Influence: The central government’s role in resource management is limited to coordination and ensuring equitable agreements among states.

Examples:

• In the Confederate States of America, individual states controlled their economies and resources.
• The European Union (partially confederal) allows member states to maintain control over their resources while collaborating on certain policies.

Merits of Confederal Government

1. State Sovereignty: Member states retain their independence and control over internal affairs.
2. Flexibility: The system allows states to cooperate on shared interests without sacrificing autonomy.
3. Avoidance of Centralized Tyranny: The weak central authority reduces the risk of abuse of power at the federal level.
4. Cultural and Political Diversity: States can maintain their unique identities, traditions, and governance styles.
5. Ease of Withdrawal: Member states can leave the confederation without significant legal or political obstacles.

Demerits of Confederal Government

1. Weak Central Government: The lack of central authority can result in inefficiency and inability to respond to national crises.
2. Lack of Unity: Conflicts between member states can hinder effective cooperation.
3. Inefficient Decision-Making: Unanimous agreement on major issues can delay or prevent decisions.
4. Limited Resources for the Central Government: Reliance on voluntary contributions can lead to underfunding of central functions.
5. Instability: The voluntary nature of membership makes the confederation vulnerable to dissolution.

Comparison of Confederal Government with Federalism

Feature	Confederal Government	Federal Government
Power Distribution	Decentralized, with states holding most powers	Shared between central and state governments
Central Authority	Weak and subordinate to member states	Strong, with authority over states
Sovereignty	Resides with member states	Shared between central and state governments
Resource Control	Managed by individual states	Shared between central and state governments
Examples	Confederate States of America, Switzerland (pre-1848)	United States, Nigeria

Reading Assignment

1. Read pages 101-115 of Essential Government for Senior Secondary Schools by Oyeleye.
2. Research the historical development of Switzerland as a confederation and its transition to a federal state.
3. Compare the governance structures of the European Union and the United States.

Evaluation Questions

1. Define a confederal government and explain its key features.
2. Discuss three merits and three demerits of a confederal system of government.
3. How does resource control operate in a confederal system? Provide examples.
4. Compare and contrast a confederal government with a federal government.
5. Identify two examples of confederal governments and describe how they functioned.

Topic: Monarchy

Meaning of Monarchy

A monarchy is a system of government where supreme authority is vested in a single individual known as a monarch. The monarch’s position is often hereditary, meaning it is passed down within a royal family. Monarchies can take different forms depending on the extent of the monarch’s powers and the role of the constitution or other governing bodies.

Examples of Monarchies:

• Absolute Monarchy: Saudi Arabia
• Constitutional Monarchy: United Kingdom, Japan

Forms of Monarchy

1. Absolute Monarchy

In an absolute monarchy, the monarch holds unlimited powers and is the supreme authority in all matters of governance. There are no constitutional or legal constraints on their powers, and they often rule by decree.

Features of Absolute Monarchy:

• Centralized authority and decision-making
• Lack of separation of powers
• The monarch is both head of state and government

Examples:

• Saudi Arabia: The king exercises control over both legislative and executive functions.
• Brunei: The sultan has absolute authority over the government and military.

2. Constitutional Monarchy

In a constitutional monarchy, the powers of the monarch are limited by a constitution or laws, and the monarch typically serves as a ceremonial head of state. The government is run by elected officials who are accountable to the people.

Features of Constitutional Monarchy:

• Separation of powers between the monarch and government
• Rule of law and a functioning constitution
• Monarch acts as a symbol of national unity and tradition

Examples:

• United Kingdom: The king or queen performs ceremonial duties while parliament and the prime minister manage governance.
• Japan: The emperor is a ceremonial figurehead with no governing powers.

Resource Control in Monarchy

The way resources are controlled in a monarchy depends on its form:

1. Absolute Monarchy:
   • The monarch has direct control over the nation’s resources, including land, wealth, and revenue.
   • Resource allocation is often decided at the monarch’s discretion without legislative input.
2. Constitutional Monarchy:
   • Resources are managed by elected governments within the framework of laws and regulations.
   • The monarch has no direct control over resource allocation.

Examples:

• In Saudi Arabia, the king controls the nation’s vast oil reserves.
• In the United Kingdom, resource control is managed by parliament and the government.

Main Features of Monarchy

1. Hereditary Succession: Leadership is passed down through royal bloodlines, ensuring continuity of power.
2. Centralized Authority: In an absolute monarchy, the monarch holds all political power. In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch represents unity while governance is decentralized.
3. Symbolic Leadership: Monarchs often serve as symbols of national identity, especially in constitutional monarchies.
4. Longevity: Monarchies tend to provide stable and continuous leadership over long periods.
5. Divine Right of Kings (Historical): Monarchs in absolute systems often claim their authority is derived from divine powers.

Merits of Monarchy

1. Stability and Continuity: The hereditary nature of monarchy ensures consistent leadership, reducing political uncertainty.
2. Unity and National Identity: Monarchs often serve as unifying figures who symbolize the nation’s heritage and culture.
3. Quick Decision-Making: In absolute monarchies, centralized authority allows for swift and decisive governance.
4. Reduced Political Partisanship: Monarchs are often above political rivalries, especially in constitutional monarchies.
5. Tradition and Prestige: Monarchies uphold long-standing traditions, fostering a sense of historical continuity.

Demerits of Monarchy

1. Risk of Tyranny: Absolute monarchs can wield unchecked power, leading to oppression and abuse.
2. Lack of Democratic Representation: In absolute monarchies, citizens have little or no say in governance.
3. Inefficiency: Hereditary leadership does not guarantee competent rulers, leading to poor decision-making.
4. Resistance to Change: Monarchies can be slow to adapt to modern political and social demands.
5. Cost of Maintenance: Maintaining royal families can be expensive, especially in constitutional monarchies with ceremonial roles.

Reading Assignment

1. Read pages 120-135 of Essential Government for Senior Secondary Schools by Oyeleye.
2. Research the role of monarchs in both absolute and constitutional monarchies, focusing on their influence in governance.
3. Study the history of the United Kingdom’s monarchy and its evolution into a constitutional system.

Evaluation Questions

1. Define monarchy and explain its key features.
2. Differentiate between absolute and constitutional monarchies.
3. Discuss three merits and three demerits of monarchy.
4. How is resource control managed in an absolute monarchy compared to a constitutional monarchy?
5. Provide examples of countries that operate under each form of monarchy.

Topic: Republicanism

Definition of Republicanism

Republicanism is a system of government in which the head of state is elected, either directly by the people or through their representatives. Unlike a monarchy, where leadership is often hereditary, republicanism emphasizes popular sovereignty and governance based on the will of the people. In a republic, public officials are accountable to the citizens, and there is usually a clear separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

Examples of Republics:

• United States of America: The president is elected by an electoral process.
• France: Operates under a republican system with an elected president.
• Nigeria: A federal republic with an elected president and legislature.

Features of Republicanism

1. Elected Head of State: The leader, often referred to as the president, is chosen through an electoral process rather than hereditary succession.
2. Popular Sovereignty: The government derives its power from the consent of the governed.
3. Rule of Law: Governance is based on a constitution or set of laws, which apply equally to all citizens, including leaders.
4. Separation of Powers: Power is divided among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches to prevent abuse.
5. Accountability: Public officials are held accountable to the citizens, often through periodic elections.
6. Fundamental Rights: Republican systems typically guarantee certain rights and freedoms to all citizens, such as freedom of speech and the right to vote.

Resource Control in a Republic

In a republican government, resource control is typically managed by elected representatives and institutions within the framework of the constitution. Resources are allocated to serve the public good, and decisions regarding resource management are subject to oversight and accountability mechanisms.

Key Aspects of Resource Control in a Republic:

1. Public Ownership: Natural and public resources are owned collectively by the people and managed on their behalf by the government.
2. Transparent Governance: Decisions about resource allocation are made through democratic processes to ensure fairness and accountability.
3. Checks and Balances: Resource management is subject to checks and balances to prevent corruption and misuse.

Examples:

• In Nigeria, resources like oil are managed by the federal government, with a portion of revenue shared among the states.
• In the United States, resource control is regulated by federal and state laws, with environmental and economic considerations.

Differences Between Republicanism and Monarchy

Feature	Republicanism	Monarchy
Head of State	Elected (e.g., president)	Hereditary or appointed (e.g., king or queen)
Source of Authority	Popular sovereignty	Divine right or hereditary succession
Governance Structure	Based on a constitution and elected representatives	May be absolute or constitutional
Accountability	Leaders are accountable to the people	Limited accountability in absolute monarchies; ceremonial in constitutional monarchies
Examples	United States, Nigeria	United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia

Merits of Republicanism

1. Democratic Governance: Leaders are elected by the people, ensuring that government reflects the will of the majority.
2. Accountability: Public officials are held responsible for their actions through elections and other democratic processes.
3. Equality: All citizens have equal rights and opportunities to participate in governance.
4. Flexibility: Republican systems can adapt to changing political, social, and economic conditions.
5. Protection of Rights: A constitution or similar legal framework guarantees fundamental rights for all citizens.

Demerits of Republicanism

1. Political Instability: Frequent elections and changes in leadership can lead to instability.
2. Cost of Governance: Democratic processes, such as elections, can be expensive to organize and maintain.
3. Risk of Populism: Elected leaders may prioritize popular decisions over long-term benefits.
4. Bureaucratic Delays: Decision-making processes in a republic can be slow due to checks and balances.
5. Corruption Risks: Without strong institutions, elected officials may exploit their positions for personal gain.

Reading Assignment

1. Read pages 136-150 of Essential Government for Senior Secondary Schools by Oyeleye.
2. Research the history and development of republican systems in the United States and France.
3. Study the differences between republicanism and monarchy in terms of governance and leadership.

Evaluation Questions

1. Define republicanism and explain its key features.
2. Differentiate between republicanism and monarchy, citing examples.
3. Discuss the merits and demerits of a republican system of government.
4. How is resource control managed in a republican system? Provide examples.
5. Explain why accountability is a key feature of republican governance.

Topic: Constitutions and Constitutionalism

Topic: Executive in Government 

Introduction:

In SS1 Government, understanding the structure, functions, and principles of the executive is key to mastering the subject. The executive plays a vital role in the governance of a nation, responsible for implementing laws and policies, managing public services, and overseeing the day-to-day affairs of the government. This article is designed to break down the concept of the executive into digestible sections, providing detailed explanations and real-world examples that will help SS1 students understand its components, functions, and importance. By the end of this guide, students will have a solid understanding of how the executive operates in different political systems and its crucial role in government.

Composition of the Executive

The composition of the executive refers to the people who make up the executive branch of government. The executive can be structured in different ways depending on the type of government system in place—parliamentary or presidential. Each system has unique characteristics, and understanding the differences is essential for SS1 students.

Parliamentary Executive (Cabinet Executive):

In a parliamentary system, the executive is derived from the legislature (parliament). The Prime Minister is the head of the government, while the President (if present) is the ceremonial head of state. The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the party that has the most seats in the legislature, and they form the government with the help of other ministers (the Cabinet). These ministers are typically members of the legislature.

• Example: The United Kingdom has a parliamentary system. The Prime Minister is the head of the government, and the Cabinet is made up of senior members of parliament who oversee various government departments (such as education, health, defense, etc.).

Presidential Executive:

In a presidential system, the executive is separate from the legislature. The President is both the head of state and the head of government. The President is elected directly by the people and does not sit in the legislature. The president is typically supported by a cabinet of appointed officials who head various government departments.

• Example: The United States has a presidential system. The President is the head of both the state and the government, with a separate legislature (Congress) that creates laws. The President’s cabinet includes various secretaries (such as the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defense).

Reading Assignment:

• Research the difference between the parliamentary system and the presidential system in any two countries (e.g., the UK and the USA). Compare how the executive is composed in each country.

Evaluation Question:

1. What is the difference between a parliamentary executive and a presidential executive? Provide examples of countries that use each system.

Functions of the Executive

The functions of the executive refer to the key roles and responsibilities performed by the executive branch in government. The executive is responsible for implementing laws, managing public services, and ensuring the stability and growth of the nation.

Key Functions:

• Implementation of Laws: The executive ensures that laws passed by the legislature are put into practice. This includes overseeing the day-to-day operations of government departments and agencies that carry out these laws.
• National Security and Defense: The executive is responsible for protecting the country from external threats. This function is usually carried out by the military and law enforcement agencies under the executive’s control.
• Foreign Affairs: The executive handles a country’s relations with other countries, including negotiating treaties, alliances, and trade agreements.
• Public Administration: The executive is responsible for the smooth functioning of public institutions such as schools, hospitals, and transportation systems. They ensure that these institutions provide the services citizens need.
• Budget and Economic Management: The executive manages the nation’s finances, including preparing and presenting the budget to the legislature and managing the country’s economic resources.

Example:

• In Nigeria, the President (as head of the executive) implements policies in sectors like education, health, and infrastructure. The President’s cabinet ministers oversee specific departments like health, education, and defense.

Reading Assignment:

• Study the roles of the executive in Nigeria’s government, and identify the specific functions carried out by the President and the cabinet.

Evaluation Question: List and explain the key functions of the executive. Why are these functions important for a country’s governance?

Control of the Executive

Control of the executive refers to the mechanisms in place to ensure that the executive branch operates within legal boundaries and is held accountable for its actions. Control is typically achieved through checks and balances in democratic systems. The aim is to prevent any abuse of power and ensure that the executive does not overstep its authority.

Mechanisms of Control:

• Legislative Control: In both parliamentary and presidential systems, the legislature has the power to scrutinize and approve executive actions. In a parliamentary system, the legislature can vote to dismiss the executive (Prime Minister and Cabinet) through a vote of no confidence. In a presidential system, the legislature may impeach a president for misconduct.
• Judicial Control: The judiciary can review executive actions to ensure they are in compliance with the constitution. If an executive order or action is deemed unconstitutional, the judiciary has the power to nullify it.
• Public Opinion and Media: The public and media can serve as a check on executive power by holding government officials accountable through public scrutiny, protests, and news reporting.

Example:

• In Nigeria, the National Assembly plays a significant role in controlling the executive by scrutinizing executive actions and approving the national budget. The Judiciary ensures that the executive follows the rule of law.

Reading Assignment:

• Investigate how the National Assembly in Nigeria controls the executive, especially with regard to passing the national budget and approving executive appointments.

Evaluation Question: 3. How is the executive controlled in a democratic system? Discuss the roles of the legislature, judiciary, and public opinion in controlling the executive.

Honesty and Integrity in the Executive

Honesty and integrity are critical qualities for members of the executive branch, as they are responsible for managing the nation’s resources and making decisions that impact millions of citizens. A government that lacks honesty and integrity can lead to corruption, mismanagement, and a loss of public trust.

Importance of Honesty and Integrity:

• Building Trust: Citizens are more likely to trust government institutions when they believe that the executive acts with honesty and integrity.
• Fighting Corruption: An executive that values integrity is less likely to engage in corrupt practices such as bribery or embezzlement of public funds.
• Ensuring Effective Governance: Integrity ensures that the executive makes decisions based on the best interests of the country, rather than personal or political gain.

Example:

• Singapore is an example of a country where the executive has been highly regarded for its integrity. The country’s leadership has focused on anti-corruption measures and transparency, ensuring that government officials act in the public interest.

Reading Assignment:

• Investigate how honesty and integrity in government contribute to the success of a nation. Research examples from countries known for their effective governance, such as Singapore.

Evaluation Question: Why is honesty and integrity important for members of the executive? How do these qualities contribute to the success of a country?

Topic: Legislature and Judiciary 

Introduction:

For SS1 students, mastering the functions of the legislature and understanding the judiciary is crucial for comprehending the mechanics of government and how laws are made and enforced. These two branches of government play pivotal roles in maintaining order, ensuring justice, and protecting citizens’ rights. In this article, we will explore in-depth the functions of the legislature, its types, the process of passing bills into law, and the importance of honesty and integrity within both the legislature and judiciary. We will also cover the selection, status, conditions, privileges, and functions of judges, judicial independence, and the factors that can limit this independence. Each section is structured to provide detailed explanations, real-world examples, and practical insights for SS1 students.

Functions of the Legislature

The legislature is a crucial branch of government responsible for making laws, representing the people, and overseeing the executive. The legislature ensures that laws align with the needs of the society and that the executive operates within the law.

Key Functions of the Legislature:

• Law-Making: The primary function of the legislature is to make laws. This is done through the introduction, discussion, and approval of bills.
• Representation: Legislators represent the interests of the citizens in the legislature. They ensure that the concerns and needs of their constituents are heard and addressed in the law-making process.
• Oversight: The legislature checks the activities of the executive branch to ensure that the government is functioning effectively and within the limits of the law. This is achieved through the power to question and investigate government actions.
• Budget Approval: The legislature has the power to approve the national budget, which allocates funds to various government departments and projects.
• Amendment of Laws: The legislature can propose and pass amendments to existing laws to meet the changing needs of society.

Example:

• In Nigeria, the National Assembly (composed of the Senate and House of Representatives) is tasked with creating and amending laws, approving the national budget, and holding the executive accountable.

Reading Assignment:

• Research the key functions of the Nigerian National Assembly and summarize how it checks the executive and makes laws.

Evaluation Question:

1. What are the main functions of the legislature? How does the legislature ensure that the government is accountable to the people?

Types of Legislature: Unicameral and Bicameral

The structure of a legislature can be unicameral or bicameral, referring to the number of chambers or houses it contains. Each system has its advantages and disadvantages.

Unicameral Legislature:

A unicameral legislature consists of only one house or chamber. This type of legislature is often simpler and faster in decision-making because there is no need to pass laws through multiple houses.

• Example: Finland and Denmark have unicameral legislatures, with only one chamber where laws are debated and passed.

Bicameral Legislature:

A bicameral legislature consists of two chambers or houses. This structure is typically used to balance the representation of different groups or regions in a country, with one house representing the population and the other representing geographical regions, states, or elites.

• Example: Nigeria has a bicameral legislature, consisting of the Senate (upper house) and the House of Representatives (lower house). The Senate represents states, while the House of Representatives represents the people based on population.

Reading Assignment:

• Research the differences between unicameral and bicameral legislatures, and analyze how each system operates in two countries of your choice.

Evaluation Question: Compare and contrast the unicameral and bicameral systems of legislature. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?

Stages of Passing a Bill into Law

The process of passing a bill into law is a complex procedure that ensures that laws are carefully considered before becoming part of the legal system. The steps involved may vary slightly depending on the country, but they typically follow a similar pattern.

Key Stages in Passing a Bill into Law:

• Introduction: A bill is introduced in either the lower or upper house of the legislature. It is usually presented by a member of the legislature or the executive.
• First Reading: The bill is read for the first time, and its general principles are debated. No detailed discussion or voting occurs at this stage.
• Second Reading: This is the stage where the bill is debated in detail. Legislators discuss the merits and drawbacks of the proposed law.
• Committee Stage: The bill is sent to a committee for further examination. The committee can suggest amendments to the bill before it returns to the full house for approval.
• Third Reading: The bill is read again in its final form, with any amendments included. The final version is then debated and voted on.
• Senate/Upper House Review: If the bill originates in the lower house, it is then sent to the upper house for review. The upper house may propose amendments, which must be agreed upon by the lower house.
• Presidential Assent: If the bill passes through both houses, it is sent to the President or monarch for final approval (assent). Once signed, the bill becomes law.

Example:

• In Nigeria, the National Assembly follows this process for passing bills. For instance, the Not Too Young To Run Bill passed through all stages and received presidential assent, allowing young people to run for political office.

Reading Assignment:

• Research the process of passing a bill into law in Nigeria and summarize each stage. Compare it with the process in another country.

Evaluation Question: 3. Outline the key stages involved in passing a bill into law. Why is it important to have such a detailed process?

Honesty and Integrity in the Legislature

Honesty and integrity in the legislature are essential for building public trust and ensuring that the laws passed are in the best interests of the people. Legislators are entrusted with the power to make laws that affect the entire country, so it is crucial that they act with transparency and moral uprightness.

Importance of Honesty and Integrity:

• Public Trust: When legislators act with honesty, the public is more likely to trust that the laws they create are fair and just.
• Prevention of Corruption: Honesty and integrity help prevent corruption, bribery, and favoritism in the legislature.
• Effective Governance: Integrity ensures that legislators focus on the welfare of the people rather than personal gain.

Example:

• In Singapore, a strong emphasis on honesty and integrity in government has led to low corruption levels and a highly effective legislative process.

Reading Assignment:

• Research the role of honesty and integrity in legislative bodies and how it influences public trust and governance.

Evaluation Question: 4. Why are honesty and integrity important for legislators? How do these qualities influence effective governance?

Selection of Judges: Status, Conditions, and Privileges

Judges play a vital role in the judiciary, and their selection process is crucial for ensuring that the judicial system remains fair and impartial. Judges are usually appointed based on their qualifications, experience, and integrity.

Selection of Judges:

Judges are typically selected by the executive or the legislature, and the process often includes a thorough review of the candidate’s qualifications, legal expertise, and ethical standing.

• Example: In Nigeria, judges are appointed by the President, subject to confirmation by the Senate.

Conditions and Privileges:

Judges are provided with specific conditions of service to ensure their independence. These include security of tenure, a competitive salary, and immunity from arbitrary dismissal.

Reading Assignment:

• Investigate the process of judicial selection in Nigeria and compare it with the process in another country.

Evaluation Question: 5. How are judges selected in your country? What conditions and privileges do they enjoy, and why are these important?

Judicial Independence and Maintenance

Judicial independence ensures that judges are able to make decisions based on the law and facts, without interference from the executive or legislature. This is fundamental for maintaining a fair and impartial judicial system.

Importance of Judicial Independence:

• Fair Trials: Judicial independence ensures that judges can make decisions based solely on the law and not external pressures.
• Protection of Rights: Independent judges can uphold the rights of citizens without fear of retaliation from the government or other powerful entities.

Factors Limiting Judicial Independence:

• Political Interference: Governments may attempt to influence judicial decisions, undermining judicial independence.
• Lack of Security of Tenure: Judges who can be removed at the whim of the executive or legislature may not feel free to make impartial decisions.

Example:

• In Nigeria, the independence of the judiciary is protected by the Constitution, but political interference and pressure sometimes limit its effectiveness.

Reading Assignment:

• Research the factors that influence judicial independence in Nigeria and identify any challenges to it.

Evaluation Question: 6. Why is judicial independence important? What factors can limit the independence of the judiciary?

Factors Limiting Judicial Independence

While judicial independence is crucial for ensuring a fair and impartial legal system, several factors can limit the ability of judges to act without external pressures. Understanding these factors is essential to grasp the challenges that can undermine the fairness of the judiciary.

Key Factors Limiting Judicial Independence:

1. Political Interference:
   • Definition: Political interference occurs when politicians, especially those in the executive or legislature, attempt to influence or control judicial decisions. This could involve pressuring judges to make rulings that align with the government’s agenda.
   • Example: In some countries, the executive might try to exert influence over the judiciary by appointing judges who align with their political views, thereby compromising their independence.
   • Impact: Political interference undermines the integrity of the judiciary and can lead to biased decisions that favor the ruling party.
2. Lack of Financial Autonomy:
   • Definition: Judicial independence requires financial autonomy, meaning that the judiciary must have its own budget and the financial resources to operate independently from the executive and legislature.
   • Example: In some nations, when the judiciary’s budget is controlled by the executive, the ruling government can withhold or reduce the judiciary’s funding to coerce judges into making favorable decisions.
   • Impact: Insufficient funding or economic dependence on the executive can pressure judges to act in ways that are not in the best interest of justice.
3. Security of Tenure:
   • Definition: Judges need job security to make decisions based solely on law and facts, without fear of losing their position for unpopular rulings.
   • Example: In some countries, judges can be removed from office by political authorities or through a process that is not entirely independent, affecting their ability to deliver fair judgments.
   • Impact: If judges fear retaliation or removal for making independent decisions, they may be hesitant to rule impartially.
4. Public Opinion and Media Influence:
   • Definition: The influence of public opinion and media can sometimes pressure judges into aligning their decisions with popular sentiment, rather than with the law.
   • Example: If media outlets or public figures pressure the judiciary on high-profile cases, it may affect how judges approach their rulings.
   • Impact: While public opinion is important in a democracy, judges must resist it in order to ensure that justice is administered based on the law, not on popular pressure.
5. Political Appointment and Lack of Transparency:
   • Definition: In many countries, judges are appointed by the executive or legislature. When the process lacks transparency, it may result in judges being appointed based on political loyalty rather than merit.
   • Example: If a President or Prime Minister appoints judges from their political party, it may erode the independence of the judiciary.
   • Impact: Judges appointed for political reasons may feel obligated to make decisions that align with the interests of those who appointed them, rather than following the law impartially.

Honesty and Integrity in the Judiciary

Judicial honesty and integrity are crucial for the credibility of the justice system. A judiciary that is honest and operates with integrity helps to ensure public trust, equal application of the law, and the fair treatment of individuals.

Factors Affecting Honesty and Integrity in the Judiciary:

1. Corruption:
   • Definition: Corruption refers to judges accepting bribes, engaging in favoritism, or abusing their position for personal gain.
   • Example: A judge who accepts a bribe to rule in favor of one party, regardless of the merits of the case, is engaging in corruption.
   • Impact: Corruption undermines the fairness of the judicial process and damages public confidence in the legal system.
2. Political Pressure:
   • Definition: Political pressure is when judges are influenced or coerced by political parties, government officials, or interest groups to make decisions in favor of specific political or financial interests.
   • Example: A government might pressure a judge to rule in favor of a policy or legislation that aligns with the government’s interests, even if it contradicts the law.
   • Impact: Judges who yield to political pressure compromise their integrity and the fairness of the legal system.
3. Lack of Accountability:
   • Definition: When judges are not held accountable for unethical behavior, it can lead to a lack of integrity in the judiciary.
   • Example: In some countries, judges may not be subject to regular reviews or disciplinary measures, which allows unethical behavior to go unchecked.
   • Impact: Without accountability, judges may feel they can act dishonestly or violate ethical standards without consequences, leading to corruption and a loss of public trust.
4. Ineffective Legal Framework:
   • Definition: The absence of a strong legal framework to ensure ethical conduct among judges can lead to unethical practices.
   • Example: If a country’s judicial code of conduct is vague or poorly enforced, judges may feel less obligated to maintain high ethical standards.
   • Impact: A weak legal framework reduces the ability of the judiciary to function with integrity and fairness.
5. Personal Bias and Conflicts of Interest:
   • Definition: Judges must remain impartial in their decisions. However, personal biases, family ties, or conflicts of interest can lead to unethical decisions.
   • Example: A judge who has a personal connection to a party involved in a case may be inclined to make a biased ruling.
   • Impact: Personal biases or conflicts of interest can lead to unjust decisions and undermine the credibility of the judicial system.

Reading Assignment:

• Investigate how political interference, corruption, and lack of accountability affect judicial independence and integrity in your country. Provide examples of instances where judicial independence has been threatened and how it was handled.
• Research the judicial code of conduct in your country and compare it with the judicial systems in two other countries.

Evaluation Questions:

1. List and explain five factors that can limit the independence of the judiciary. How do these factors impact the fairness of the judicial system?
2. Why is honesty and integrity crucial in the judiciary? Discuss how corruption and political pressure affect judicial independence.
3. How can the judicial system ensure that judges remain independent and honest in their duties?

Conclusion

Understanding the different systems of government is crucial for appreciating how societies are managed and how power is distributed and exercised. Each government system—whether unitary, federal, presidential, or parliamentary—has its own merits, challenges, and suitability depending on a country’s unique needs and circumstances. Additionally, the principles of constitutionalism, judiciary independence, and legislative functions underline the importance of fairness, accountability, and balance of power in governance. By studying these concepts, students gain valuable insights into the structures that shape societies, preparing them for civic participation and informed decision-making in the future.